Within this framework, the planning function was decentralised at the school level with the implementation of the school- level improvement plan SLIP in upazilas ADB Under SLIP, a three-year development plan including specific allocations and implementation time-frames were prepared for the concerned school, by the school itself and submitted to the UEO for the approval.
A SLIP school received a grant of BDT 20, from the government and explored community subventions to implement the plan and thereby creating a platform for a collective initiative for school development. With emphasis on teaching and learning, SLIP funds were spent for achievement awards for students, class room management, teaching and learning aids, school dress for poor students, small-scale infrastructure repairing electrical wiring, fitting fans, etc.
In addition, the introduction of SLIP brought about, through the evolve of the concept of planning at the school level, a bottom-up approach to planning and development, need based expenditures to enhance teaching and learning, and an institutionalised community involvement for school development. Three reasons can broadly be identified for evolving this successful decentralisation at the school level.
Historically, primary schools were local or community based institutions, even when receiving government funding Sobhan Thirdly, since a sequence in undertaking development programmes was maintained in the Education Sector, leading to a better understanding of carrying out reforms between the government and the DPs. The most widespread and far-reaching education decentralisation reforms have taken place in Latin America Winkler and Gershberg Generally, a prominent avenue to push policy agenda in primary education are international conferences see Figure 2.
This Conference reawakened external cooperation for universal primary education in developing countries in context of a school enrollment decline in basic education during the s Alexander Thereafter, two major global education policies were adopted in , namely Dakar Framework of Action and the Millennium Development Goals. This makes policy transfer easier. For instance, the Jomtien Conference made declarations on the attainment of universal primary education by , five additional undertakings on other aspects of access to education and the affirmation of the quality of primary education.
Similarly, the UN Millennium declarations set specific targets to be achieved by As a signatory to these declarations, Bangladesh reciprocated these targets in its subsequent plans and programmes see Table 6. Goal 3: Promoting gender equality and empowering women Goal 8: Developing a global partnership for development 4. The government includes politicians, primary education bureaucrats and primary school teachers.
As a consequence of nationalising all primary schools, a primary education management through a chain of bureaucratic apparatus reaching to the upazila level and beyond evolved. Furthermore, this step made all school teachers public employees, united under association to ensure their interests.
At this stage, an interesting nexus emerged between the primary education bureaucrats and teachers. As a result, reforms in management of primary education faced resistance from teacher communities and from bureaucrats. For instance, in the Caretaker Government contracted out the task of improving the functioning of primary schools in 20 upazilas to the Brac on a pilot basis. The existence of an education policy delineating public-private collaboration could lessen this resistance to reforms in the sector.
The need for a comprehensive national education policy has been voiced repeatedly, but this goal has remained elusive. Attempts were made by different political regimes to have an education policy for the nation, which can be seen through formation of a commission by one regime and scraping its recommendations by the following regime.
Before , a total of eight committees or commissions were formed and reports produced; however, none of them were fully implemented Rabbi Again, after coming to power in December national elections, the AL Government formed an member Education Commission to draft the new education policy without reviving the earlier one. Nevertheless, the absence of main opposition party in the passing of the Policy in the Parliament does not guarantee the policy be taken up by the opposition if it comes to power in the future.
Nevertheless, while reforming the sector all possible stakeholders need to be included in the process. In the planning of the decentralisation framework, Chile, El Salvador and New Zealand designed teacher pay and transfer policies that have won the consent of unions Winkler and Gershberg The regime has had three and half years to implement the Policy. Some remarkable steps have already been taken to implement the present education policy.
An implementation committee and 24 sub-committees have been formed to give it more momentum. However, a coordinated regulatory framework is necessary to stop flip-flap attitude regarding the NEP and secure the continuation of the reforms within the framework of the policy.
In this context characterised by a a long-standing vacuum, b uncertainty regarding the relevant national policy, and c resistance by the vested interest groups to any attempt to replicate and consolidate a local model, the remaining players — the development partners gradually intervened and assumed a key role. Policy Transfer and National Ownership It is inferred from the foregoing discussion that the country draws policy agenda from international initiatives, which is not dissociated with national ownership.
State representatives exercise limited ownership by participating in these global processes and procedures.
While the global commitments and frameworks are translated into actions at national level through undertaking projects and programmes, to what extent the government exercises stewardship is questionable. This leads the development partners to assume hegemonic postures in setting the policy agenda.
As per SWAp modility, joint review missions were carried out for monitoring the progress of the primary education development programmes. A back-and-forth tendency of the Government was seen in regards of adopting programme approach in primary education development.
While returning from programme to project, the then Primary and Mass Education Division PMED , renamed as ministry since 2 January , was made responsible for coordinating the implementation of these discrete projects within the agreed policy framework, mainly through the joint annual review.
In fact, primary education development has gone through incremental transition from project approach to assimilate SWAp. Implementation of PEDP2 was stalled in cases due to lack of proactive understanding of requirements for inter- ministerial agreement to advance on certain actions especially in instances where policy changes were required and negotiation to resolve these issues.
The PSC will oversee the PEDP3 policy implementation, review programme progress, approve the annual budget, ensure timely decisions in critical inter-ministerial policy and implementation issues, and provide operational guidance. In addition to finding a common cooperation modality, DPs played key role in design of primary education development programmes. PEDP2 lacked participation of key implementing line units of DPE, and was pushed for accelerated approval without adequate preparation; avoided tough policy issues and accepted high failure risk; and included a large number of non- prioritised actions WB Similarly, the GoB had comparatively limited involvement in preparation of the Macro Plan MP for primary education, which provided an overarching policy framework, strategies, and implementation plan, to be carried out under PEDP2.
It was prepared largely by external, international consultants engaged by ADB and published in July The Government adopted and endorsed the Plan in January The Plan outlined the objectives of primary education over the next six years. However, unlike the past, preparation of PEDP3 involved substantial participation of DPE line directors and implementing partners as well as civil society.
In order to promote national stewardship in preparation and implementation of national plans and programmes, emphasis had been given consistently in almost all projects and programmes so far to enhance the capacity of the Government. Considerable training was given to staff in procurement and financial management within PEDP1.
However, high staff turnover undermined the impact of the capacity building and institutional development interventions of the projects and programmes. A significant proportion of the people who had been involved in implementing the General Education Project were no longer at their posts during preparation and implementation of PEDP1.
To address this concern we argue that the MoPME and the DPE need to be staffed with strictly career Primary Education bureaucrats to demonstrate departmental ownership, sector specialisation and state capacity to negotiate with the DPs. Conclusion External assistance undoubtedly led to significant achievements in the education sector in Bangladesh.
However, as various goals turn into specific programmes and strategies in this sector, how they fit into national priorities, operational capabilities and political circumstances, have now become critical. To improve aid effectiveness, the key challenge is to strengthen country ownership of policy, implementation capacity and leadership in aid management.
This paper has tried to explain and analyse the influence of the DPs in the policy processes of the primary education sector through determining project design and monitoring the project performance. Resistance of the domestic interest groups and the long-standing vacuum and uncertainty of national education policy have facilitated this influence played by the DPs. Bangladesh has successfully reduced its financial dependency on the DPs.
The Ministry has lost its institutional capacity to design and manage projects or programmes because of high staff turnover. A good number of bureaucrats who had been involved in implementing a program could not be found available in the design and implementation of the next programme. In order to ensure national stewardship in the sector there is a need for building capacity within state representatives to negotiate with the DPs.
This capacity would also need to be backed up by departmental ownership and sector specialisation by staffing the Ministry and the Directorate with strictly career Primary Education bureaucrats. References Ahmed, M. Bangladesh: A Study of the Democratic Regimes. Dhaka: University Press Limited. Ahmad, K. Ahsan, F. Sixth Five Year Plan as the tool of accelerating growth and reducing Poverty [online].
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